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General knowledge has been defined in differential
psychology as "culturally valued knowledge communicated by a range of
non-specialist media" and encompassing a wide subject range. This
definition excludes highly specialized learning that can only be
obtained with extensive training and information confined to a single
medium. General knowledge is an important component of crystallized
intelligence and is strongly associated with general intelligence, and
with openness to experience.
Studies have found that people who are highly knowledgeable
in a particular domain tend to be knowledgeable in many. General
knowledge is thought to be supported by long-term semantic memory
ability.
A number of studies have found that males tend to have
greater general knowledge than females, perhaps due to gender
differences in interests rather than memory ability.[1] Recent studies
have found that general knowledge is associated with exam performance in
schoolchildren[6] and proofreading skills.
Intelligence
High scorers on tests of general knowledge tend to also
score highly on intelligence tests. IQ has been found to robustly
predict general knowledge scores even after accounting for differences
in age, sex, and five factor model personality traits.[8][9][10] In the
Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence, general knowledge is
considered a component of crystallized intelligence. Standardized IQ
tests may therefore include measures of general knowledge, such as in
the information subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
General knowledge is also moderately associated with verbal
ability, though only weakly or not at all with numerical and spatial
ability.[4] As with crystallized intelligence, general knowledge has
been found to increase with age.
Long-term semantic memory
Research has found positive relationships between different
domains of knowledge, suggesting that individuals who are highly
knowledgeable in a particular domain usually have a good long-term
memory for factual information in general. Due to the positive
intercorrelations between knowledge domains, individual differences in
general knowledge may reflect differences in ability to retrieve
information from long-term semantic memory. A general factor of
long-term semantic memory could be explained by the existence of an
underlying neurophysiological process responsible for retaining
information in long-term memory. Individual differences in the
efficiency of such processes might explain why all domains of semantic
memory appear to be intercorrelated.
Personality
People high in general knowledge tend to be highly open to
new experiences and in typical intellectual engagement. The relationship
between openness to experience and general knowledge remains robust
even when IQ is taken into account. People high in openness may be more
motivated to engage in intellectual pursuits that increase their
knowledge. Relationships between general knowledge and other five factor
model traits tend to be weak and inconsistent. Though one study found
that extraversion and neuroticism were negatively correlated with
general knowledge, others found that they were unrelated. Inconsistent
results have also been found for conscientiousness.[note
Differences
Research has found that on average males tend to score
higher than females on tests of overall general knowledge and in most
domains of knowledge tested. Males also score higher than females on the
information subtest of the WAIS and the WISC, with small to medium
effect sizes. In a comparison between male and female university
students in 19 domains of academic knowledge, males had greater
knowledge in 14 domains, especially in physical science and technology,
but also in humanities and civics. A general knowledge composite across
all 19 tests showed a male advantage of medium effect size. A study of
university students in Northern Ireland found that males scored higher
in general knowledge than females, as well as in 12 of 19 specific
knowledge domains. Females scored moderately higher than males in
medicine and cookery. The authors of this study suggested that this male
advantage most likely reflects differences in interests rather than
differences in verbal or memory ability. Similar results were found in a
study of German high school students.Male advantages in general
knowledge are not attributable to differences between males and females
in reasoning ability (i.e. fluid intelligence), socio-economic status,
or exposure to school course content.Although males appear to have
greater general knowledge, there is some evidence that females tend to
have an advantage in "autobiographical" knowledge, or memory of personal
experiences.While general knowledge is supported by semantic memory,
autobiographical knowledge is supported by episodic memory, which is not
tested in intelligence tests and tends to be difficult to measure
because of the uniquely personal nature of such memories.
Predictor of achievement
A number of studies have assessed whether performance on a
general knowledge test can predict achievement in particular areas,
namely in academics, proofreading, and creativity.
Academic achievement
General knowledge has been found to predict exam results in
a study of British schoolchildren.The study examined cognitive ability
and personality predictors of exam performance and found that general
knowledge was positively correlated with GCSE English, mathematics, and
overall exam results. General knowledge test scores predicted exam
results, even after controlling for IQ, five factor model personality
traits, and learning styles.
Proofreading
General knowledge has been found to robustly predict
proofreading skills in university students. A study found that
proofreading had a larger correlation with general knowledge than with
general intelligence, verbal reasoning, or openness to experience. In a
multiple regression analysis using general knowledge, general
intelligence, verbal reasoning, five factor personality traits, and
learning styles as predictors, only general knowledge was a significant
predictor.
Creativity
General knowledge has been found to have weak associations
with measures of creativity.[16] In a study examining contributions of
personality and intelligence to creativity, general knowledge was
positively correlated with tests of divergent thinking, but was
unrelated to a biographical measure of creative achievement, self-rated
creativity, or a composite measure of creativity. The relationship
between general knowledge and divergent thinking became non-significant
when controlling for fluid intelligence.
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